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| Fuel-based particulate matter emission factors (A: PM2.5 mass, B: organic carbon fraction (OC/PM), C: elemental carbon fraction (EC/PM)), global warming commitment (D: GWC-Kyoto, E: GWC-All), and F: fuel consumption. Credit: ACS, Reynolds et al. Click to enlarge. |
Chassis dynamometer emission testing conducted on 30 in-use Indian auto-rickshaws—two-stroke and four-stroke CNG-fueled (CNG-2S and CNG-4S) and four-stroke gasoline-fueled (PET-4S)—found that global
warming commitment (GWC) associated with emissions from CNG-2S was more than twice that from CNG-4S or PET-4S, due mostly to
CH4 emissions. The mean fuel-based PM2.5 emission factor (mean (95% confidence interval)) for CNG-2S (14.2 g kg-1 (6.2-26.7)) was almost
30 times higher than for CNG-4S (0.5 g kg-1 (0.3-0.9)) and 12 times higher than for PET-4S (1.2 g kg-1 (0.8-1.7)).
The study by the team from the University of British Columbia, published in the ACS journal Environmental Science & Technology, suggests that “comprehensive measurements and data should drive policy interventions rather than assumptions about the impacts of clean fuels”.
In 1998, responding to very poor air quality, the Indian Supreme Court ordered all public
transportation vehicles in Delhi (including three-wheeled passenger
carriers or auto-rickshaws), to operate on “clean fuel”. By 2003, all buses, taxis and auto-rickshaws in Delhi were
retrofitted to run on CNG; only new vehicles with CNG engines are now available. (Of the four-stroke vehicles, a subset also has functioning backup gasoline fuel systems.) Other jurisdictions in India and
other countries have switched or are considering switching to CNG-fueled vehicles, citing environmental
considerations, the authors note.
This study measured a comprehensive set of emissions relevant
to AQ [air quality] (PM2.5 and its major components organic carbon (OC)
and elemental carbon (EC), CO, THC, NOx) and climate
change (CO2, CH4, OC, EC, CO, and NMHC) from a sample
of in-use auto-rickshaws representing the on-road fleet in Delhi.
Auto-rickshaws from Delhi were chosen for the study because (a)
they operate on CNG, (b) they are “for-hire” vehicles, and are
hence readily recruited, and (c) they all have the same basic
chassis design and function (manufactured by one company, but
available with different engine types and a wide range of model
years). In Delhi, there are more than 55,000 CNG auto-rickshaws
for hire, providing flexible mobility that is faster and more
reliable than city buses while costing less than conventional
taxis. There are an estimated 3 million auto-rickshaws in India,
around two-thirds of the world total.
The overall aims of this study were to (a) determine EFs [emission factors] from
light-duty CNG-fueled engines for use in inventories of health- and
climate-relevant emissions, (b) compare emissions from two-stroke
and four-stroke CNG engines, (c) assess the extent to which
emissions from in-use CNG vehicle vary and exceed Bharat Norms
for new vehicles, and (d) explore the influence of fuel choice and
vehicle age on emissions from a subset of the vehicles.—Reynolds et al.
Among the many other findings of the study were:
-
Most emission species had very wide intervehicle variability within groups, confirming the value of
multiple tests for developing fleet EFs. -
Despite the wide variation within vehicle types,
substantial differences in EFs were still found between vehicle
categories, for example mean CH4 EFs from CNG-
2S (310 g kg-1 (281-344)) is significantly different from CNG-4S (50 g kg-1 (38-62)). -
When the four-stroke auto-rickshaws were separated into
“new” and “old” groups and their emissions compared by fuel
type, no significant difference was observed for any exhaust
constituents except for NOx from the gasoline-fueled vehicles. -
Fuel consumption for PET-4S (3.8 kg 100 km-1) was in fact almost
double that of CNG-4S group (2.1 kg 100 km-1). The authors noted that older vehicles may run fuel-rich either due to poor fuel system condition or because operators and mechanics purposefully
tune them thus to improve engine power and combustion
reliability at the expense of fuel consumption. -
Replacing the remaining 2-stroke auto-rickshaws
in Delhi would have nearly the same effect as switching from
gasoline to CNG in 10 times as many four-stroke vehicles.
Our findings suggest that CNG fuel should be limited to use
in four-stroke engines to realize potential health benefits (low
PM2.5 and THC, less CO than PET-4S) and climate benefits
(lower fuel consumption, less GWC than CNG-2S). Although
the two-stroke engines examined in this study were all CNG-fueled,
other studies suggest that two-stroke engines fueled with
gasoline or LPG (another popular “clean fuel” in India) have
similarly high PM2.5, CO and THC EFs. These studies indicate that a switch from gasoline or LPG
to CNG in two-stroke engines may bring a sizable PM emissions
reduction (of around a half), however emissions are still
many times higher than the “acceptable” levels of CNG-4S
vehicles. The average CNG-2S vehicle emitted nearly 3 orders
of magnitude (700 times) more PM than the new CNG-4S test
vehicle.
…regulators should also consider following the example of Dhaka, Bangladesh,
who banned use of two-stroke vehicles completely. This study
has shown the need for comprehensive test programs that develop EFs based on multiple vehicles: accurate health- and
climate-relevant EFs are essential inputs for vehicle emission
inventories or models, and an important step toward implementing
appropriate policies.—Reynolds et al.
Resources
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Conor C.O. Reynolds, Andrew P. Grieshop, Milind Kandlikar (2011) Climate and Health Relevant Emissions from in-Use Indian Three-Wheelers Fueled by Natural Gas and Gasoline. Environmental Science & Technology Article ASAP doi: 10.1021/es102430p